本文发表在 rolia.net 枫下论坛一篇英文习作，彼时读完徐中约洋洋洒洒百万余字的《中国近代史》，感慨良多，随后又翻阅了史景迁的《追寻现代中国》，觉得应该留下些总结，所以写成此篇，没有太深入的论点，主旨在于引发讨论。
现在看这篇文章，觉得最大的问题就是将那段历史诠释成了一系列偶然事件，强调明清嬗代过程中太多的偶然因素，太注重人的作用，而对可能更重要的时代背景和大环境（文化，社会，经济）等因素没有给于足够的重视，这是此文的重大缺陷。
Rise of the Qing
In early seventeenth century China was in a period of momentous transition. The last imperial dynasty established by Han Chinese, the Ming, had long passed its zenith and entered its final stage of existence. Replacing the Ming was a nomadic people from China’s northeastern region – the Manchus, who until then lived mainly as a group of hunter-gatherer tribes. Taking advantage of the decline of the Ming, aided by its successful governmental, military and diplomatic strategies, and helmed by its ingenious leadership, the Manchus rose to challenge the Ming Empire and ultimately succeeded it as the new reigning power. After its conquest of China, rulers of the new dynasty – the Qing – further consolidated its power and foundation through a series of political innovations, social restorations and geographic expansions. By late eighteenth century the Qing Empire was arguably the most powerful nation on Earth.
Circumstances had favored the Manchus right from the start as the late Ming dynasty was beset with a host of internal problems – eunuch domination of the court, government disarray, high taxes, financial depletion, and social turmoil – that greatly undermined the foundation of the empire and contributed to its ultimate downfall. Part of the trouble can be traced back to the very heart of the empire. In the later years of his reign, Emperor Wanli withdrew from most court appearances, refused to participate in discussions of national events, and stopped his functions as the decision maker of the empire. The eunuchs quickly filled in this power vacuum. Unchecked by the emperor, the eunuchs were able to accrue power, build factions in the government, and abuse the power to their own advantages. Most notorious among them was Wei Zhongxian, who used his influence to tyrannize the country and ruthlessly purge his political enemies. To combat the eunuch domination of the court, scholars known as the “Donglin Society” vied to remove corrupt officials from their posts and pushed for political reform and restoration of government ethics. Wei in retaliation led a concerted campaign of terror against the Donglin members. The power struggle left the Ming government in disarray and severely damaged the state’s prestige. In the meantime, shifts in global commercial trend led to a massive decrease in silver imports into China, which forced the ratio of copper to silver to decline. A thousand copper coins that had been worth one ounce of silver in the 1630s had now become worth less than half an ounce by the 1640s (Spence, P.20). The devaluation of copper coins had a disastrous consequence on the country’s peasants, who now had to pay their taxes twice as much in value as before (Spence, P.20). Added to this was a general raise on taxes due to the financial depletion caused by the country’s prolonged war in Korea. The war against the Japanese in Korea not only cost the Ming Empire huge fortunes, but also demoralized its people through constant military recruitments. This nationwide moral fatigue coupled with high taxes, financial drainage and natural disasters goaded the people in certain areas into disaffection and upheavals. Two devastating rebellions led by Li Zhicheng and Zhang Xianzhong roamed over the greater part of the country for nearly twenty years, causing untold misery and widespread unrest. Their rampage nearly destroyed the social structure of the country, crippled the Ming ruling system, and drained its financial and military resources. In the wake of these events, a dynastic change seemed imminent.
To a large extent the decline of the Ming facilitated the Manchu conquest of China. To be sure, the Manchus had their strengths and merits that must not be overlooked. During their initial conquest of China, the Manchus employed a series of successful policies which included territorial expansions, the creation of the banner system, the adoption of the Ming political system, and the absorption of Chinese intelligentsia into its bureaucracy. Nurhaci, being the first and foremost of generations of Manchu leaders, laid the groundwork for the Manchu conquest of China. His great contribution was the unification of the Jurchen tribes into one through marriages and coercion. In so doing, he not only amassed and concentrated the strength of the Manchu people and enlarged their power base, but also elevated himself in power and status. Next, in a touch of genius, he organized his troops into eight different groups called “banners.” This was an important innovation because the banners were more than a simple military organization; they functioned also as embryonic administrative units. Everyone under Nurhaci belonged to a banner. Registration, Taxation, and conscription were all managed by the banner organization. Through this half-military and half-administrative system Nurhaci was able to mobilize the Manchu tribes with high efficiency and made them into a formidable war machine. In addition to that, Nurhaci used a mixture of flattery and threat to induce the Ming generals stationed in Manchuria into submission (Spence, P.20). He kept former Ming officials and generals in their offices, employed educated Chinese in his bureaucracy, and even conferred on some of them honorific titles. Through these strategies and policies Nurhaci gathered enough strength and support that by 1616 he boldly proclaimed himself khan of the new Jin dynasty, thus setting the wheel of his grand conquest in motion.
After Nurhaci’s death, Hong Taiji continued his father’s policy of cooperating with the surrendered Ming Chinese and took several important steps in promoting the Manchu cause. First, in a move of fundamental importance, Hong Taiji set up a political system with six ministries, patterned almost exactly after the Ming court. Many Chinese were employed throughout this new bureaucracy. It marked a complete constitutional transition from the tribal-style military administration to the Chinese-style civil administration. This institutional change enabled the Manchus – a foreign, nomadic people – to better adapt to and govern a country in which the majority of civilians were ethnic Han Chinese – a sedentary, agricultural people. Next, Hong Taiji declared the formation of a new dynasty called the Qing. This decision had huge symbolic as well as political significances. Symbolically, it signifies that the Manchus were no longer in servitude to the Ming dynasty. Politically, it gave the Manchus wider mandate (Spence, P.31) and helped them won Chinese acceptance. To some degree these new developments may have convinced the Ming general Wu Sangui that the Manchus offered a better prospect for order than the rebel leader Li Zicheng could (Spence, P.32). He opened the gates of Shanhaiguan Pass and joined hands with the Manchus to defeat Li. Whatever the motives behind his decision, Wu Sangui’s defection removed a strong obstacle for the Qing and hastened its conquest of China. Within twenty years Regent Dorgon and Emperor Shunzhi suppressed the remaining Ming loyalist resistance and completed the conquest of China proper.
The period from 1600 to 1662 witnessed the dawn of a new dynasty led by a host of resourceful leaders, but the rise of the Qing hardly concluded here. Once established the Manchus were blessed with a succession of capable rulers who consolidated the new regime through a series of social restorations, political innovations, and territorial expansions. Even before the completion of the conquest of China, Regent Dorgon took several measures in consolidating the Manchu reign. One of these was the decree that all Chinese men must shave their foreheads and have their hair braided in the Manchu-style queue. In complying, the Chinese would swear their allegiance to the Qing. This provided a way to single out those that were rebellious against the Manchus from those that were obedient. In civil administration, Dorgon retained most of the Ming institutions and practices, and welcomed Chinese officials into the government service. To appeal to the Chinese sensibilities and to bring new talents into the government, he also re-instituted the civil service examinations. In addition, he introduced a multiethnic diarchy system in which each of the six ministries was placed in the hands of two presidents, one Manchu and one Chinese (Spence, P.40). By appointing Manchu and Chinese officials to work side by side the Manchus allied themselves with the established Confucian order. This system became one of the cornerstones of the Qing institution and persisted throughout the dynasty until 1911. Under the aegis of Dorgon, China underwent a safe and smooth transition during Emperor Shunzhi’s reign.
Shunzhi was succeeded by one of China’s most able rulers – Emperor Kangxi. As a ruler Kangxi approached the ideal. In military conquest Kangxi completed the unfinished work of his predecessors. He suppressed the rebellion of the Three Feudatories, thereby removing the largest threat to the Manchu rule and restoring peace in the country’s far south. With the help of former Ming admiral Shi Lang, he defeated the Ming loyalists on Taiwan and incorporated the island into the Chinese Empire. As the crowning jewel of his military accomplishments, he defeated Galdan’s rebel forces in the west and pushed the Qing frontier well past the Gobi desert. In international affairs, Kangxi effectively halted the Russian expansion in the Amur region, established diplomatic ties with Russia, and fixed the Qing’s northern border through the signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. Kangxi himself was a dedicated patron of learning. His knowledge of Confucianism played a major role in civil administration. He issued a series of sixteen maxims that summarized Confucian moral values, specifically emphasizing hierarchical submission in social relations, obedience, and hard work (Spence, 60). He took a lenient position in handling Chinese scholars who refused to serve in the Manchu government. In a benevolent gesture he welcomed these former Ming scholars to compile a history of the Ming dynasty. In this way he quenched their resentment towards the Manchus. In both internal and external affairs, Kangxi truly had accomplished much. By the end of his reign, splendor had replaced the earlier insecurity.
Kangxi’s successors – Emperors Yongzheng and Qianlong – both made their contributions in moving the Qing Empire towards stability and prosperity. Yongzheng was a hardworking and conscientious ruler. Domestically, he made steadfast effort to reform the much abused land tax to alleviate hardship in the countryside, and emancipated the social outcasts of China. Institutionally, Yongzheng created the Office of Military Finance to assist him in military and state affairs. This office proved useful in reaching fast decisions, offering quick counsel, and guarding state secrets, and later became known as the Grand Council. Yongzheng’s diligence and high efficiency made possible the glorious reign of his son, Qianlong. Qianlong shared many qualities with his grandfather Kangxi. He was energetic, open-minded, and lenient. His great achievement was the conquest and integration of huge areas of western region known as Xinjiang into China. In so doing he solved once and for all the Zunghar problem that had plagued the dynasty since its earlier days. Qianlong considered himself the patron saint of letters. He sponsored the compilation of the Four Treasuries, which was the largest anthology of literature and philosophy in the world. With this feat he not only preserved the greatness of Chinese culture, but also expunged in these literatures any unfavorable references to the Manchus. Interestingly, both Yongzheng and Qianlong liked to portray themselves in paintings as filial son and father, as loving family members, as Daoist master, sometimes even as a Buddha! Using these propagandas they sought to appeal to Chinese values and traditions and win wider acceptance among the people.
Through generations of struggle, hard work, and leadership, the Manchus successfully established themselves in China as the legitimate rulers. By late eighteenth century, the Qing dynasty enjoyed peace and prosperity; its territories were vast; the treasury was full; China glowed with an opulence and affluence it had never known before.
Lifesucks
June 2010更多精彩文章及讨论，请光临枫下论坛 rolia.net
现在看这篇文章，觉得最大的问题就是将那段历史诠释成了一系列偶然事件，强调明清嬗代过程中太多的偶然因素，太注重人的作用，而对可能更重要的时代背景和大环境（文化，社会，经济）等因素没有给于足够的重视，这是此文的重大缺陷。
Rise of the Qing
In early seventeenth century China was in a period of momentous transition. The last imperial dynasty established by Han Chinese, the Ming, had long passed its zenith and entered its final stage of existence. Replacing the Ming was a nomadic people from China’s northeastern region – the Manchus, who until then lived mainly as a group of hunter-gatherer tribes. Taking advantage of the decline of the Ming, aided by its successful governmental, military and diplomatic strategies, and helmed by its ingenious leadership, the Manchus rose to challenge the Ming Empire and ultimately succeeded it as the new reigning power. After its conquest of China, rulers of the new dynasty – the Qing – further consolidated its power and foundation through a series of political innovations, social restorations and geographic expansions. By late eighteenth century the Qing Empire was arguably the most powerful nation on Earth.
Circumstances had favored the Manchus right from the start as the late Ming dynasty was beset with a host of internal problems – eunuch domination of the court, government disarray, high taxes, financial depletion, and social turmoil – that greatly undermined the foundation of the empire and contributed to its ultimate downfall. Part of the trouble can be traced back to the very heart of the empire. In the later years of his reign, Emperor Wanli withdrew from most court appearances, refused to participate in discussions of national events, and stopped his functions as the decision maker of the empire. The eunuchs quickly filled in this power vacuum. Unchecked by the emperor, the eunuchs were able to accrue power, build factions in the government, and abuse the power to their own advantages. Most notorious among them was Wei Zhongxian, who used his influence to tyrannize the country and ruthlessly purge his political enemies. To combat the eunuch domination of the court, scholars known as the “Donglin Society” vied to remove corrupt officials from their posts and pushed for political reform and restoration of government ethics. Wei in retaliation led a concerted campaign of terror against the Donglin members. The power struggle left the Ming government in disarray and severely damaged the state’s prestige. In the meantime, shifts in global commercial trend led to a massive decrease in silver imports into China, which forced the ratio of copper to silver to decline. A thousand copper coins that had been worth one ounce of silver in the 1630s had now become worth less than half an ounce by the 1640s (Spence, P.20). The devaluation of copper coins had a disastrous consequence on the country’s peasants, who now had to pay their taxes twice as much in value as before (Spence, P.20). Added to this was a general raise on taxes due to the financial depletion caused by the country’s prolonged war in Korea. The war against the Japanese in Korea not only cost the Ming Empire huge fortunes, but also demoralized its people through constant military recruitments. This nationwide moral fatigue coupled with high taxes, financial drainage and natural disasters goaded the people in certain areas into disaffection and upheavals. Two devastating rebellions led by Li Zhicheng and Zhang Xianzhong roamed over the greater part of the country for nearly twenty years, causing untold misery and widespread unrest. Their rampage nearly destroyed the social structure of the country, crippled the Ming ruling system, and drained its financial and military resources. In the wake of these events, a dynastic change seemed imminent.
To a large extent the decline of the Ming facilitated the Manchu conquest of China. To be sure, the Manchus had their strengths and merits that must not be overlooked. During their initial conquest of China, the Manchus employed a series of successful policies which included territorial expansions, the creation of the banner system, the adoption of the Ming political system, and the absorption of Chinese intelligentsia into its bureaucracy. Nurhaci, being the first and foremost of generations of Manchu leaders, laid the groundwork for the Manchu conquest of China. His great contribution was the unification of the Jurchen tribes into one through marriages and coercion. In so doing, he not only amassed and concentrated the strength of the Manchu people and enlarged their power base, but also elevated himself in power and status. Next, in a touch of genius, he organized his troops into eight different groups called “banners.” This was an important innovation because the banners were more than a simple military organization; they functioned also as embryonic administrative units. Everyone under Nurhaci belonged to a banner. Registration, Taxation, and conscription were all managed by the banner organization. Through this half-military and half-administrative system Nurhaci was able to mobilize the Manchu tribes with high efficiency and made them into a formidable war machine. In addition to that, Nurhaci used a mixture of flattery and threat to induce the Ming generals stationed in Manchuria into submission (Spence, P.20). He kept former Ming officials and generals in their offices, employed educated Chinese in his bureaucracy, and even conferred on some of them honorific titles. Through these strategies and policies Nurhaci gathered enough strength and support that by 1616 he boldly proclaimed himself khan of the new Jin dynasty, thus setting the wheel of his grand conquest in motion.
After Nurhaci’s death, Hong Taiji continued his father’s policy of cooperating with the surrendered Ming Chinese and took several important steps in promoting the Manchu cause. First, in a move of fundamental importance, Hong Taiji set up a political system with six ministries, patterned almost exactly after the Ming court. Many Chinese were employed throughout this new bureaucracy. It marked a complete constitutional transition from the tribal-style military administration to the Chinese-style civil administration. This institutional change enabled the Manchus – a foreign, nomadic people – to better adapt to and govern a country in which the majority of civilians were ethnic Han Chinese – a sedentary, agricultural people. Next, Hong Taiji declared the formation of a new dynasty called the Qing. This decision had huge symbolic as well as political significances. Symbolically, it signifies that the Manchus were no longer in servitude to the Ming dynasty. Politically, it gave the Manchus wider mandate (Spence, P.31) and helped them won Chinese acceptance. To some degree these new developments may have convinced the Ming general Wu Sangui that the Manchus offered a better prospect for order than the rebel leader Li Zicheng could (Spence, P.32). He opened the gates of Shanhaiguan Pass and joined hands with the Manchus to defeat Li. Whatever the motives behind his decision, Wu Sangui’s defection removed a strong obstacle for the Qing and hastened its conquest of China. Within twenty years Regent Dorgon and Emperor Shunzhi suppressed the remaining Ming loyalist resistance and completed the conquest of China proper.
The period from 1600 to 1662 witnessed the dawn of a new dynasty led by a host of resourceful leaders, but the rise of the Qing hardly concluded here. Once established the Manchus were blessed with a succession of capable rulers who consolidated the new regime through a series of social restorations, political innovations, and territorial expansions. Even before the completion of the conquest of China, Regent Dorgon took several measures in consolidating the Manchu reign. One of these was the decree that all Chinese men must shave their foreheads and have their hair braided in the Manchu-style queue. In complying, the Chinese would swear their allegiance to the Qing. This provided a way to single out those that were rebellious against the Manchus from those that were obedient. In civil administration, Dorgon retained most of the Ming institutions and practices, and welcomed Chinese officials into the government service. To appeal to the Chinese sensibilities and to bring new talents into the government, he also re-instituted the civil service examinations. In addition, he introduced a multiethnic diarchy system in which each of the six ministries was placed in the hands of two presidents, one Manchu and one Chinese (Spence, P.40). By appointing Manchu and Chinese officials to work side by side the Manchus allied themselves with the established Confucian order. This system became one of the cornerstones of the Qing institution and persisted throughout the dynasty until 1911. Under the aegis of Dorgon, China underwent a safe and smooth transition during Emperor Shunzhi’s reign.
Shunzhi was succeeded by one of China’s most able rulers – Emperor Kangxi. As a ruler Kangxi approached the ideal. In military conquest Kangxi completed the unfinished work of his predecessors. He suppressed the rebellion of the Three Feudatories, thereby removing the largest threat to the Manchu rule and restoring peace in the country’s far south. With the help of former Ming admiral Shi Lang, he defeated the Ming loyalists on Taiwan and incorporated the island into the Chinese Empire. As the crowning jewel of his military accomplishments, he defeated Galdan’s rebel forces in the west and pushed the Qing frontier well past the Gobi desert. In international affairs, Kangxi effectively halted the Russian expansion in the Amur region, established diplomatic ties with Russia, and fixed the Qing’s northern border through the signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. Kangxi himself was a dedicated patron of learning. His knowledge of Confucianism played a major role in civil administration. He issued a series of sixteen maxims that summarized Confucian moral values, specifically emphasizing hierarchical submission in social relations, obedience, and hard work (Spence, 60). He took a lenient position in handling Chinese scholars who refused to serve in the Manchu government. In a benevolent gesture he welcomed these former Ming scholars to compile a history of the Ming dynasty. In this way he quenched their resentment towards the Manchus. In both internal and external affairs, Kangxi truly had accomplished much. By the end of his reign, splendor had replaced the earlier insecurity.
Kangxi’s successors – Emperors Yongzheng and Qianlong – both made their contributions in moving the Qing Empire towards stability and prosperity. Yongzheng was a hardworking and conscientious ruler. Domestically, he made steadfast effort to reform the much abused land tax to alleviate hardship in the countryside, and emancipated the social outcasts of China. Institutionally, Yongzheng created the Office of Military Finance to assist him in military and state affairs. This office proved useful in reaching fast decisions, offering quick counsel, and guarding state secrets, and later became known as the Grand Council. Yongzheng’s diligence and high efficiency made possible the glorious reign of his son, Qianlong. Qianlong shared many qualities with his grandfather Kangxi. He was energetic, open-minded, and lenient. His great achievement was the conquest and integration of huge areas of western region known as Xinjiang into China. In so doing he solved once and for all the Zunghar problem that had plagued the dynasty since its earlier days. Qianlong considered himself the patron saint of letters. He sponsored the compilation of the Four Treasuries, which was the largest anthology of literature and philosophy in the world. With this feat he not only preserved the greatness of Chinese culture, but also expunged in these literatures any unfavorable references to the Manchus. Interestingly, both Yongzheng and Qianlong liked to portray themselves in paintings as filial son and father, as loving family members, as Daoist master, sometimes even as a Buddha! Using these propagandas they sought to appeal to Chinese values and traditions and win wider acceptance among the people.
Through generations of struggle, hard work, and leadership, the Manchus successfully established themselves in China as the legitimate rulers. By late eighteenth century, the Qing dynasty enjoyed peace and prosperity; its territories were vast; the treasury was full; China glowed with an opulence and affluence it had never known before.
Lifesucks
June 2010更多精彩文章及讨论，请光临枫下论坛 rolia.net